Mechanisms of action. Lindane Food chain fat-rich food, e. Maneb , Benzimidazoles Food chain agricultural and zootechnical fungicides , living environment and workplaces agricultural areas Thyreostatic effects Industrial products and daily-use products Nonyl-phenols and octyl-phenols Detergent by-products: food chain seafood and consumer products Estrogen agonists—ER alpha Bisphenol A Food chain e.
Estrogen agonist—ER alpha Several phthalates dihexyl-ethyl-, di-n-butyl-, etc. Food chain e. PVC, deodorants, adhesives, etc. Agonists of PXR, effects on steroid hormone biosynthesis Polybrominated flame retardants Food chain fat-rich food, e. Interaction with PXR leading to altered steroid and thyroid hormone homeostasis Organotins Food chain seafood , consumer products e.
Open in new tab. Figure Open in new tab Download slide. Google Scholar Crossref. Search ADS. Dietary genistin stimulates growth of estrogen-dependent breast cancer tumors similar to that observed with genistein. Biological monitoring of pesticide exposure: a review of analytical methods. Breast adipose tissue concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and other organochlorines and breast cancer risk. Google Scholar PubMed. Organochlorine pesticide content of breast adipose tissue from women with breast cancer and control subjects.
Cancer incidence in a population accidentally exposed to 2,3,7,8—tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin. Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybromonated biphenyl. Arsenic at very low concentrations alters glucocorticoid receptor GR -mediated gene activation but not GR-mediated gene repression: complex dose-response effects are closely correlated with levels of activated GR and require a functional GR DNA binding domain.
Integrating biomonitoring exposure data into the risk assessment process: phthalates [diethyl phthalate and di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate] as a case study. Biological effects of soy protein rich in isoflavones on the menstrual cycle of premenopausal women. Environmental dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane or hexachlorobenzene exposure and breast cancer: is there a risk?
Comparison among different ovarian stimulation regimens for assisted procreation procedures in patients with endometriosis. Dietary soy antagonizes the effects of estriadol on the mammary gland and uteri of macaques. High plasma concentrations of di- 2-ethylhexyl -phthalate in women with endometriosis.
Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Sport-caught fish consumption and conception delay in licensed Michigan anglers. Time to pregnancy and occupational exposure to pesticides in fruit growers in The Netherlands. Delemarre-van de Waal.
Risk and aggressiveness of breast cancer in relation to plasma organochlorine concentrations. The differential ability of the phytoestrogen genistein and of estradiol to induce uterine weight and proliferation in the rat is associated with a substance specific modulation f uterine gene expression. Effects of alcohol consumption on female fertility during an year period.
Comparison of the modulatory effects of human and rat liver microsomal metabolism on the estrogenicity of bisphenol A: implications for extrapolation to humans. Serum dioxin concentrations and endometriosis: a cohort study in Seveso, Italy.
Persistent abnormalities in the rat mammary gland following gestational and lactational exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin TCDD. Atrazine inhibition of testosterone production in rat males following peripubertal exposure.
Environmental pollutants and fertility disorders. Heavy metals and minerals. Association of soy and fiber consumption with the risk of endometrial cancer. Use of the laboratory rat as a model in endocrine disruptor screening and testing. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers PBDEs , polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs and chlorinated paraffins CPs in rats-testing interactions and mechanisms for thyroid hormone effects.
Negative lifestyle is associated with a significant reduction in fecundity. Serum concentrations of organochlorine compounds and the subsequent development of breast cancer.
Phytoestrogen consumption and breast cancer risk in a multiethnic population. Estrogenic effects of genistein on the growth of estrogen receptor-positive human breast cancer MCF-7 cells in vitro and in vivo. Plasma organochlorine levels and risk of breast cancer in a prospective study. Environmental phthalate monoesters activate pregnane X receptor-mediated transcription. Investigation of selected persistent organic pollutants in farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar , salmon aquaculture feed, and fish oil components of the feed.
Royal Commission. Contamination of human ovarian follicular fluid and serum by chlorinated organic compounds in three Canadian cities. Potent inhibition of estrogen sulfotransferase by hydroxylated PCB metabolites: a novel pathway explaining the estrogenic activity of PCBs. Soya foods and breast cancer risk: a prospective study in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
Evaluation of the day pubertal female assay in Sprague-Dawley rats treated with DES, tamoxifen, testosterone, and flutamide. Toxicity induced by the chemical carcinogen 7,12—dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and the protective effects of selenium in Wistar rats.
Breast cancer and serum organochlorines: a prospective study among white, black, and Asian women. Sexual precocity after immigration from developing countries to Belgium: Evidence of previous exposure to organochlorine pesticides.
The specific role of isoflavones on estrogen metabolism in premenopausal women. Evaluation for reliability and feasibility of the draft protocol for the enhanced rat day subacute study OECD Guideline using androgen antagonist flutamide.
Plasma organochlorine levels and risk of breast cancer: An extended follw-up in the nurses' health study. DeSesso hazard identification and predictability of Children's Health Risk from animal data. Status epilepticus and neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age in an extremely low birth weight infant. Estrogenic activity of octylphenol, nonylphenol, bisphenol A and methoxychlor in rats.
The effects of atrazine on female Wistar rats: An evaluation of the protocol for assessing pubertal development and thyroid function. Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P 1A1 CYP1A1 polymorphisms, and breast cancer risk among African American women and white women in North Carolina: a population-based case-control study. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane serum levels and breast cancer risk: A case-control study from Mexico.
Decreased ovarian hormones during a soya diet: implications for breast cancer prevention. Hazard identification and risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals with regard to developmental effects.
Problems in testing and risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals with regard to developmental toxicology. Soy intake and cancer risk: A review of the in vitro and in vivo data. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina. The two phytoestrogens gistein and quercetin exert different effects on oestrogen receptor function. Environmental organochlorine exposure and postmenopausal breast cancer risk.
Perinatal exposure to bisphenol-A alters peripubertal mammary gland development in mice. Antioxidant effect of ascorbic acid on PCB Aroclor induced oxidative stress in hypothalamus of albino rats.
Uterine adenocarcinomas in mice following developmental treatment with estrogens: A model for hormonal carcinogenesis. Historical comparison of perfluorooctanesulfonate, perfluorooctanoate, and other fluorochemicals in human blood. Organization for economic co-operation and development OECD. Short- and long-term morbidity and mortality in the population exposed to dioxin after the Seveso accident. Spontaneous abortion in spouses of greenhouse workers exposed to pesticides. Reproductive male-mediated risk: spontaneous abortion among wives of pesticide applicators.
Baicalein and genistein display differential actions on estrogens receptor ER transactivation and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. Critical windows of exposure for children's health: the reproductive system in animals and humans. Assessment of xenoestrogenic exposure by a biomarker approach: application of the E-Screen bioassay to determine estrogenic response of serum extracts.
Adverse effects of prenatal exposure to atrazine during a critical period of mammary gland growth. Exposure parameters necessary for delayed puberty and mammary gland development in Long-Evans rats exposed in utero to atrazine.
Increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by peripheral blood leukocytes from TCDD-exposed rhesus monkeys. Serum levels of TCDD and dioxin-like chemicals in rhesus monkeys chronically exposed to dioxin: correlation of increased serum PCB levels with endometriosis.
Saenz de Rodriguez. Differential expression of CYP1A, 2B, and 3A genes in the F rat following exposure to a polybrominated diphenyl ether mixture or individual components.
Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in the U. Children as a sensitive subgroup and their role in regulatory toxicology: DGPT workshop report. Recombinant human estrogen, androgen and progesterone receptors for detection of potential endocrine disruptors.
Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract? Soyfood intake during adolescence and subsequent risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. Olive oil consumption during pregnancy and lactation in rats influences mammary cancer development in female offspring. Breast cancer risk in relation to adipose concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Long Island, New York. Serum concentrations of organochlorine compounds and endometrial cancer risk United States.
The novel targets for anti-angiogenesis of genistein on human cancer cells. Metaanalysis of soy intake and breast cancer risk. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. Polycystic ovary syndrome PCOS is a prevalent endocrine disorder in women and, in its classical presentation, is characterized by chronic anovulation and hyperandrogenism. More recently, some milder phenotypes have been recognized, in which either anovulation or hyperandrogenism may be absent.
Frequently, these women present a characteristic polycystic ovarian appearance at ultrasound and high prevalence of obesity, insulin resistance, and metabolic comorbidities, mainly in its classical phenotype.
While the pathogenesis of PCOS is still not well established, evidence suggests that both genetic and environmental factors may contribute to the clinical development of the disease. Positive relationship between androgen and the endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, in normal women and women with ovarian dysfunction. Endocr J. In fact, studies in animal models have shown that BPA acts in different ways to disturb reproductive functions, including both estrogen and androgen pathways.
Effect of bisphenol A on steroid hormone production in rat ovarian theca-interstitial and granulosa cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol. BPA also has been demonstrated to decrease hepatic androgen-related hydroxylases, inhibiting testosterone degradation, with an expected increase in hormone levels 40 40 Hanioka N, Jinno H, Nishimura T, Ando M.
Suppression of male-specific cytochrome P isoforms by bisphenol A in rat liver. Arch Toxicol. Neonatal exposure to bisphenol A and reproductive and endocrine alterations resembling the polycystic ovarian syndrome in adult rats. The estrogenic effect of bisphenol A disrupts pancreatic beta-cell function in vivo and induces insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. The mechanisms behind this association between BPA and PCOS are not clear but may be, at least in part, linked to androgen secretion, as suggested by data on animal studies.
In turn, dietary products have been emerging, as other environmental factors associated with the development of PCOS in susceptible individuals. Advanced glycated end-products AGEs are reactive derivatives of non-enzymatic glucose-protein reactions. PCOS Forum: research in polycystic ovary syndrome today and tomorrow. Clin Endocrinol Oxf.
Advanced glycation end products and nephrotoxicity of high-protein diets. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. Increased serum advanced glycation end-products is a distinct finding in lean women with polycystic ovary syndrome PCOS. AGEs seem to contribute to the elevated risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in the general population 45 45 Uribarri J, Tuttle KR. Advanced glycation end-products accumulation compromises embryonic development and achievement of pregnancy by assisted reproductive technology.
Hum Reprod. Anti-mullerian hormone is associated with advanced glycosylated end products in lean women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol. Overall, the data reviewed in this article demonstrate that EDCs contribute to numerous human female reproductive disorders. The effects of EDCs depend on the mechanism of action, the dose, and the period of life in which exposure occurred. There are many research gaps that limit full understanding of the real role of EDCs on female reproductive abnormalities.
Moreover, knowledge of opportunity windows is important, not only for understanding the pathophysiological factors involved in the susceptibility to various diseases, but also for the creation of mechanisms to minimize the exposure of populations. There is an urgent need to reduce the incidence of these reproductive disorders, which can be addressed by studies correlating early-life exposure and adult reproductive dysfunction.
Finally, it is a matter of concern that the endocrine disrupting potential of the majority of chemicals in production, including those that are found in common consumer products, has not been assessed systematically in regard to their effects on reproduction.
Abrir menu Brasil. Abrir menu. Table 1. Some of chemicals worldwide recognized as Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals. Table 2. Ovarian changes related to exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals. Decherf S, Demeneix BA. Zoeller RT. Casals-Casas C, Desvergne B. Patisaul HB. Nelson LM. Cummings AM. Newbold RR. Uribarri J, Tuttle KR. Costa EMF, et al. Porto Alegre: Artmed Panamericana; Publication Dates Publication in this collection Mar History Received 1 Oct Accepted 2 Dec This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported. Most transgenerational studies focus on exposure to a single phthalate; however, humans are exposed to mixtures of chemicals such as phthalates on a daily basis. Thus, it is important to consider the effects of mixtures on reproduction Table 1. In one study, Zhou et al. The results from this study suggest that ancestral exposure to mixtures of phthalates can negatively affect female fertility in a transgenerational manner.
However, many of the negative effects on fertility were observed in treatment groups with levels of phthalates comparable to occupational and medical exposure, but not to daily human intake of these phthalates. Given that few studies have examined the transgenerational effects of a mixture of phthalates on female reproduction, future studies are needed to confirm and expand these findings.
Such studies should include a range of doses that mimic daily exposure as well as occupational and medical exposure. BPA is a synthetic compound used as a plasticizer in epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics. It can be found in many products, including food containers, baby bottles, food and beverage can liners, and thermal receipt papers.
BPA can leach from products due to microwaving, cleaning, and exposure to UV light. Humans are exposed to BPA via dermal and oral exposure along with inhalation, but most exposure is oral BPA can be found in urine, breast milk, blood, and ovarian follicular fluid 66 , BPA has been shown to adversely affect reproduction in both males and females in human and laboratory animal studies. For example, higher BPA serum levels have been found in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome compared with women without polycystic ovarian syndrome Moreover, BPA disrupted germ cell nest breakdown 0.
These findings suggest that BPA exposure may negatively affect male and female reproduction, specifically by affecting ovarian and testicular function. Studies examining the transgenerational effects of BPA have focused more on female reproductive outcomes than male reproductive outcomes Table 1.
In one study, ancestral oral exposure to BPA 0. However, BPA exposure did not affect apoptotic factors, antioxidant genes, autophagy genes, germ cell nest breakdown, or follicle counts at PND 4 in the F3 generation of CD-1 mice In a similar study design, ancestral exposure to BPA 0.
Collectively, these data suggest that ancestral BPA exposures, including doses relevant to human exposure, affect ovarian genes and fertility in a transgenerational manner. Future studies, however, are needed to address the mechanisms underlying the transgenerational effects of BPA exposure.
One study has examined the transgenerational effects of a mixture containing BPA Tables 1 and 2. In a transgenerational study by Manikkam et al. The results indicate that ancestral exposure to the low dose of plastics increased the incidence of testis disease at 1 year of age in the F3 generation The high- and low-dose plastic groups also increased pubertal abnormalities, the occurrence of primordial follicle loss, polycystic ovary disease, and uterine weight in the F3 generation of 1-year-old Sprague-Dawley rats The results from this study suggest that ancestral exposure to mixtures of plasticizers affect reproductive organs and pubertal outcomes in the F3 generation of male and female rats.
Future studies are required to determine whether environmentally relevant levels of the plastic mixtures affect reproduction in a transgenerational manner. Furthermore, future studies should focus on relevant routes of exposure. The previous studies on plastic mixtures used IP injections as the route of exposure, whereas humans are exposed via oral, dermal, or respiratory exposure. Pesticides are toxicants that are purposely produced to kill weeds herbicides , insects insecticides , fungi fungicides , and rodents rodenticides Pesticides are used heavily for agricultural purposes and to help control infectious diseases.
In and , world pesticide usage totaled almost 6 billion pounds annually, with herbicides accounting for approximately half of this use Owing to the constant use of pesticides, humans are exposed daily via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Furthermore, widespread use has been shown to be hazardous to humans and other living organisms because it has been linked to cancer, asthma, diabetes, Parkinson disease, and cognitive effects Atrazine is one of the most effective and frequently used herbicides in the world.
Humans can be exposed through occupational exposure when agricultural workers spray the herbicide on crops Furthermore, atrazine contaminates soil, leading to human exposure through contaminated agricultural products and our waterways Epidemiological studies have reported water levels of atrazine ranging from 5. Studies have indicated that atrazine exposure can affect reproduction in both males and females.
In women, atrazine exposure has been associated with an increase in menstrual cycle irregularity Most transgenerational studies on pesticides have not focused on atrazine; however, in one study, McBirney et al. Additionally, atrazine exposure caused sperm differential DNA methylation regions, or epimutations, which were associated with testis disease in the F3 generation Testis disease was characterized by the presence of histopathologies, including azoospermia, atretic seminiferous tubules, presence of vacuoles in basal regions of seminiferous tubules, sloughed germ cells in the lumen of seminiferous tubules, and lack of seminiferous tubal lumen Owing to lack of transgenerational studies on atrazine, future studies should focus on how this chemical affects male and female reproduction in a transgenerational manner.
Furthermore, future studies should expose rodents via different exposure routes to compare with human exposure. The previous studies on atrazine used IP injections, which is not a relevant route of exposure in humans. Methoxychlor MXC is an organochlorine insecticide used on agricultural crops and livestock Although MXC is no longer used in the United States, humans are still exposed from agricultural products due to the ability of MXC to remain in soil for long periods of time Furthermore, imported food to the United States is contaminated with this insecticide.
MXC concentrations in water mains range from 0. Additionally, humans in other countries are exposed to MXC by spraying and from agricultural products that are affected by the presence of MXC in soil.
Studies have shown that MXC is a reproductive toxicant in both female and male rodents. Quignot et al. Transgenerational studies examining the effects of MXC on reproduction are limited Table 1. In contrast, MXC exposure did not affect puberty in males or females, levels of estradiol in females, or levels of testosterone in the F3 generation of Sprague-Dawley rats However, more studies are needed to examine the mechanisms underlying the transgenerational effects of MXC on male and female reproduction using relevant dose exposures that mimic daily human exposure with a more environmentally relevant exposure route.
DDT is a well-known insecticide. It is no longer used in the United States, but Asian and African countries still make use of it today to control for malaria Residents of cities in China have estimated daily intakes of DDT ranging from Similar to other pesticides, DDT biodegrades slowly, leading to constant exposure in the environment and accumulation in our food chains DDT is a known endocrine disruptor that has been shown to negatively affect fertility. In female rats and mice, DDT increased uterine weight compared with control This metabolite is still found in both water and sediment, leading to daily exposure Only a few studies have examined the transgenerational effects of DDT on male and female reproduction, and the doses used in these studies are higher than those reported in humans Tables 1 and 2.
The transmission of the polycystic ovaries may be from sperm epimutations that were induced by DDT and because many of the identified genes have been associated with polycystic ovary disease In a similar study by Nilsson et al. Furthermore, DDT promoted the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of ovarian disease susceptibility by causing changes to DNA methylation and noncoding RNA expression, as well as mRNA expression in ovarian granulosa cells from young female rats in the F3 generation.
These changes may contribute to the dysregulation of the ovary that can promote disease susceptibility later in life Although these studies show that DDT causes many transgenerational effects on reproduction, future studies should focus on lower doses and environmentally relevant routes of exposure.
Ancestral DDE exposure also decreased the number of sperm and sperm motility and the expression of Igf2 , but increased the expression of H19 in sperm in the F3 generation of rats The altered expression of Igf2 and H19 was caused by Igf2 differentially methylated region 2 hypomethylation These data suggest that ancestral exposure to DDE alters the paternally transcribed Igf2 gene and maternally transcribed H19 gene, while altering sperm function in a transgenerational manner.
This impaired spermatogenesis may be due to the transgenerational sperm DNA hypomethylation of H19 and Gtl2 retained in the somatic cells This work should be expanded by examining doses that are more relevant to human exposure, administering doses in a way that mimics daily exposure, and exploring a wider range of exposure windows.
Vinclozolin is a fungicide that is used on fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and turfgrass With vinclozolin being used on so many foodstuffs, humans are often exposed through a contaminated diet Furthermore, animal studies have shown that vinclozolin can affect reproduction in male Sprague-Dawley rats by altering sperm function Studies have examined the transgenerational effects of high doses of vinclozolin on reproduction in male and female rodents Tables 1 and 2.
A study by Anway et al. Anway et al. Additionally, Anway et al. Furthermore, studies indicate that vinclozolin promoted epigenetic transgenerational inheritance by causing changes to DNA methylation, noncoding RNA expression, and mRNA expression in ovarian granulosa cells from young female rats in the F3 generation, which may contribute to the formation of cystic ovaries Analysis of the F3 generation sperm epigenome identified differential DNA methylation regions that may suggest a role of epigenetic modifications in the germline that could explain the transgenerational phenotypes observed in the study Although many transgenerational effects on vinclozolin have been observed, some studies have not observed the same transgenerational effects 96 , Therefore, future studies are needed to resolve the discrepant findings between studies.
Studies have also examined the transgenerational effects of mixtures containing pesticides on reproduction in females and males Tables 1 and 2. Nilsson et al. These chemicals decreased follicle counts all treatments , increased the number of small ovarian cysts all treatments , increased the number of large cysts vinclozolin, pesticide, plasticizers, and jet fuel treatments , and decreased large antral follicles pesticides only at 1 year of age in the F3 generation of Sprague-Dawley rats After examining the effects of vinclozolin in greater detail, it was found that vinclozolin alters expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism and steroid precursor synthesis in the epigenome and transcriptome of granulosa cells from ovarian follicles in the F3 generation, and that these alterations in gene expression have been shown to potentially be involved in the pathology of polycystic ovarian disease In a study with a similar study design except for the inclusion of vinclozolin, Manikkam et al.
When examining males in this same study, these chemicals increased anogenital index plasticizers and dioxin , caused an early onset of puberty plasticizers and dioxin , and decreased testosterone levels plasticizers, dioxin, and jet fuel in the F3 generation of Sprague-Dawley rats These studies are very important for understanding how mixtures of chemicals affect reproduction, but, importantly, note that some mixtures included high doses that may not be relevant to daily human exposure.
Thus, future studies should be conducted using environmentally relevant doses of the mixtures. Some endocrine disruptors are known to persist in our environment for long periods of time due to their insolubility and lipophilicity, leading to their ability to remain in soil.
This persistence in the environment leads to human exposure daily through the food chain 98 , PCBs are a group of industrial chemicals that were mass produced from the s until they were banned in by the Toxic Substances Control Act owing to their toxicity They were used in many products such as plasticizers in rubber and resins, carbonless copy paper, wax extenders, inks, hydraulic fluids, and lubricants Almost 1. PCBs are chemically and thermally stable and lipophilic in nature, allowing them to be highly resistant to degradation, so they can be readily found in soils and bodies of water, leading to bioaccumulation in cells and the food chain 98 , 99 , The mean dietary exposure to PCBs in a cohort of 36, Swedish men was determined to be 3.
PCBs have been shown to affect fertility in males and females. In women who were offspring of fish eaters, in utero PCB exposure was associated with decreased fecundability In human sperm, PCBs have been shown to decrease sperm motility and affect the fertilization potential of sperm In utero exposure to PCBs 2. Most compounds were similar or higher in the general population.
The problem may lie not only in nail product formulations, but also in nail salons not adhering to proper ventilation guidelines.
Craig et al. In one study, published in in Landscape and Urban Planning , researchers had participants go through a classic stress test, and then exposed them to realistic, three-dimensional videos of neighborhoods with varying amounts of greenery to measure whether greenery exposure had any effect on participant recovery from the stress test. The researchers found that the men who participated had mild improvements in recovery, but the women did not. In another paper, published in in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health , researchers looked at green space availability within neighborhoods as well as a number of mental health indicators: Again, there were different relationships between mental health and green space by gender.
For men, the relationship was linear, meaning the more green space in their neighborhoods, the better their mental health. For women, however, the relationship was U-shaped, where better mental health was associated with moderate rather than low or high green space.
The greatest benefit of green space for mental health in men was seen starting in their early thirties and remained fairly stable throughout their lives; for women, there was no benefit of green space until their mid-forties, and the benefit then increased with age.
When it comes to endocrine disruptors, one of the main things a green space should do is serve as a literal buffer between a person and these pollutants. And this buffering has been supported in two recent studies published in Environmental Research , one out of the United States and one out of Iran.
This finding matches the aforementioned literature that many endocrine-disrupting pollutants can compromise menstrual health. Air pollution and green space are differentially distributed in the United States by socioeconomic status and race. So, not all communities with access to green space are able to reap their health benefits which extend far beyond buffering from pollution exposure , because of the ways air pollution or safety concerns nullify any of the effects.
These cups can still leak, so a heavier bleeder will need a backup, but most disposable and many reusable backups also contain plastic. Maybe some of these things will reduce your exposure. Single-use plastics were not the norm until the plastics industry began promoting them in But this framing around individual product replacement is a scam for two reasons. First, this idea of personal responsibility tends to be gendered, falling in particular on women and gender-diverse people.
Women often perform the labor of minding risks and trying to reduce them, and many studies of intergenerational harms are framed in ways that blame mothers for their own exposures. The second reason is that this individual framing misses out on the chance to notice the structural one.
To see the structural problem clearly, it helps to look back to a time when plastics were not widely disposable or a major source of pollution. In , Lloyd Stouffer, then-editor of the magazine Modern Packaging , encouraged a room full of attendees at a conference of the Society of the Plastics Industry to start thinking about one-time use plastics as the key to get continuing customers.
In , Stouffer wrote a review for the Society's annual conference reflecting on that talk and where plastics had gone. You are filling the trash cans, the rubbish dumps and the incinerators with literally billions of plastics bottles, plastics jugs, plastics tubes, blisters and skin packs, plastics bags and films and sheet packages—and now, even plastics cans. People live near landfills; people rely on polluted waterways for food and income.
Pollutants from landfills leach into groundwater. We are at the point where we have polluted our planet, affecting not just our species but entire ecosystems. Phthalates and bisphenols, which are found in products and contexts such as those shown above, are implicated in endometriosis and endometrial cancer because both, as weak estrogens, can disrupt the natural estrogen-to-progesterone ratio in the body and therefore encourage extra growth of uterine tissue. A review in Reproductive Medicine and Biology found that exposing endometrial cells to phthalates causes inflammation, invasion, changes in cytokines, increased oxidative stress, cell viability, resistance to hydrogen peroxide, and proliferation.
In the early days of conservation efforts by settler scientists in the United States, researchers applied locational data on the Ohio River to our understanding of how pollution gets into and supposedly out of our water more broadly.
They developed a threshold model, where there is a quantity of pollution you can pump into a river, under which the river can still recover. Here, Liboiron does not just mean current tribal lands and reservations, but rather the land that was originally occupied by Indigenous peoples, and that settlers took from them. The assumption that this land is available to take and use as settlers wish, and that they consider some parts of the land acceptable for storing pollutants to protect some but not all people, places, and beings , undergirds the entire mitigation strategy of the United States.
In other words, the disposable model from the plastics industry and the threshold model from conservationists are both permission-to-pollute models that never really asked permission. Pollution, then, is an ongoing and essential component of colonialism. People were generous in how they took pieces—for example, taking only one thing or taking something plentiful rather than a unique piece. An assimilative capacity assessment would ask how much pollution scientists have decided the planet can tolerate, whereas an alternatives assessment would entail imagining a path where scientists and nonscientists together decide that no harm to people, other beings, or land is acceptable.
As of now, most of the replacements for phenols and phthalates appear to be as bad, if not worse, than the originals. An alternatives assessment here is not as simple as replacing an ingredient.
We need to reconsider the ubiquity of endocrine disruptors in our society as a whole. Taking this broader view, you could consider getting a menstrual cup not everyone can tolerate them and it takes time to find the right one , and also teaching others to use them, because there is a significant learning curve.
Changing the frame allows us to see and act in solidarity across many communities and constituencies affected by the production, distribution, and dumping of polluting substances.
What do you see when you change yours? Skip to main content.
0コメント